Choline

Functions

• Synthesis of neurotransmitter acetylcholine
  • precursor molecule for neurotransmitter acetylcholine
  • acetylcholine involved in many functions such as memory and muscle control
• Used in the synthesis of constructional components of cell membranes
  • essential for structural integrity and signaling roles of cell membranes

Deficiency

Mild

• fatigue
• insomnia
• impaired ability of the kidneys to concentrate urine
• memory problems
• nerve-muscle imbalances
• deficiency of folic acid

Severe

• infertility
• hypertension
• growth impairment
• bone abnormalities
• cirrhosis of liver, fatty liver (Fischer LM et al. 2010)
• muscle damage (Fischer LM et al. 2010)
• hemorrhagic kidney necrosis

Characteristics

• water-soluble
• usually grouped with B vitamins
• quaternary ammonium salts containing the N,N,N-trimethylethanolammonium cation
  • Required nutrients for choline to obtain all three methyl groups:
    • vitamin B3
    • folic acid
    • methionine (amino acid)
• found in head groups of phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin
  • two classes of phospholipid that are abundant in cell membranes

Good Sources

Natural

• eggs
• liver
• milk
• cruciferous vegetables
  • eg: broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, brussels sprouts, collard greens, kale, cress, bok choy, etc.

Artificial

• Lecithin (food additive derived from soy or egg yolks)
• Choline Chloride (supplement)

Notes

• Recognized as an essential nutrient since 1998
  • established AI by Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine
• Human body can synthesize some choline
  • dietary choline requirements vary among individuals
  • some individuals need more than AI and some need less
• Only 2% of US postmenopausal women consume the recommended intake for choline (2005 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey)
• Increased need during pregnancy
• Possible anti-inflammatory (ATTICA study, 2004)
• May reduce symptoms of allergic rhinitis (Das S et al. 2005)
• Little or no evidence exists to demonstrate any effect on reducing body fat

Adequate Intakes (AI)

• Males (14 yrs. and older)
  • 550 mg
• Females (19 yrs. and older)
  • 425 mg
• Pregnant females
  • 450 mg
• Lactating females
  • 550 mg
• Children
  • 220-375 mg
• Infants
  • 125 mg

Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL)

• Males (19 yrs. and older)
  • 3500 mg
• Females (19 yrs. and older)
  • 3500 mg
• Pregnant females
  • 3500 mg
• Lactating females
  • 3500 mg
• Children
  • 1000-3000 mg

Intakes above UL may lead to negative health consequences.

• sweating
• salivation
• hypotension
• hepatotoxicity
• colon adenomas (polyps) in women (Nurses Health Study)

Supplementation

• vegetarians and vegans
  • or those that do no not eat whole eggs
• endurance athletes
• alcoholics
  • or those that drink a lot of alcohol
• Most American's do not meet the their AI
  • Some have suggested this can be attributed to the anti-cholesterol propaganda