Functions
- Synthesis of neurotransmitter acetylcholine
- precursor molecule for neurotransmitter acetylcholine
- acetylcholine involved in many functions such as memory and muscle control
- Used in the synthesis of constructional components of cell membranes
- essential for structural integrity and signaling roles of cell membranes
Deficiency
Mild
- fatigue
- insomnia
- impaired ability of the kidneys to concentrate urine
- memory problems
- nerve-muscle imbalances
- deficiency of folic acid
Severe
- infertility
- hypertension
- growth impairment
- bone abnormalities
- cirrhosis of liver, fatty liver (Fischer LM et al. 2010)
- muscle damage (Fischer LM et al. 2010)
- hemorrhagic kidney necrosis
Characteristics
- water-soluble
- usually grouped with B vitamins
- quaternary ammonium salts containing the N,N,N-trimethylethanolammonium cation
- Required nutrients for choline to obtain all three methyl groups:
- vitamin B3
- folic acid
- methionine (amino acid)
- Required nutrients for choline to obtain all three methyl groups:
- found in head groups of phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin
- two classes of phospholipid that are abundant in cell membranes
Good Sources
Natural
- eggs
- liver
- milk
- cruciferous vegetables
- eg: broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, brussels sprouts, collard greens, kale, cress, bok choy, etc.
Food | Quantity | mg |
---|---|---|
Beef liver | 3 oz | 400 |
Egg | 1 large | 113+ |
Milk, 1% fat | 1 cup | 43 |
Beef, 80% lean, ground | 3 oz | 69 |
Cod Fish | 3 oz | 71 |
Peanuts | 1/2 cup | 38 |
Cauliflower | 4 oz | 44 |
Kidney beans, cooked | 1/2 cup | 27 |
Tofu | 1/4 cup | 36 |
Quinoa, uncooked | 1/4 cup | 30 |
Artificial
- Lecithin (food additive derived from soy or egg yolks)
- Choline Chloride (supplement)
Notes
- Recognized as an essential nutrient since 1998
- established AI by Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine
- Human body can synthesize some choline
- dietary choline requirements vary among individuals
- some individuals need more than AI and some need less
- Only 2% of US postmenopausal women consume the recommended intake for choline (2005 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey)
- Increased need during pregnancy
- Possible anti-inflammatory (ATTICA study, 2004)
- May reduce symptoms of allergic rhinitis (Das S et al. 2005)
- Little or no evidence exists to demonstrate any effect on reducing body fat
Adequate Intakes (AI)
- Males (14 yrs. and older)
- 550 mg
- Females (19 yrs. and older)
- 425 mg
- Pregnant females
- 450 mg
- Lactating females
- 550 mg
- Children
- 220-375 mg
- Infants
- 125 mg
Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL)
- Males (19 yrs. and older)
- 3500 mg
- Females (19 yrs. and older)
- 3500 mg
- Pregnant females
- 3500 mg
- Lactating females
- 3500 mg
- Children
- 1000-3000 mg
Intakes above UL may lead to negative health consequences.
- sweating
- salivation
- hypotension
- hepatotoxicity
- colon adenomas (polyps) in women (Nurses Health Study)
Supplementation
- vegetarians and vegans
- or those that do no not eat whole eggs
- endurance athletes
- alcoholics
- or those that drink a lot of alcohol
- most American's do not meet the their AI
- Some have suggested this can be attributed to the anti-cholesterol propaganda